Araştırma Makalesi
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Eski Mezopotamya, Mısır ve Anadolu’da Cam Üretimi ve Kullanımı

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 17, 91 - 108, 31.10.2023
https://doi.org/10.29157/etusbed.1291241

Öz

Eskiçağ toplumları ve devletleri, nadir bulunan ve üretimi ustalık gerektiren materyalleri ve ürünleri oldukça değerli bir konuma yerleştirerek kullanmışlardır. İlk üretim merkezinin Eski Mezopotamya olduğu düşünülen cam da üretim zorluğu ve nadir bulunurluğu sebebiyle, ilk olarak Eski Mezopotamya daha sonrasında Eski Mısır ve Eski Anadolu’da oldukça önemli bir konuma yerleştirilmiştir. Cam ilk aşamada, boncuklar, kâseler, vazolar ve şişeler olmak üzere çeşitli ürün modellerinin üretimin de kullanılmıştır. Yapılan çalışmalar, cam kullanımının her ne kadar Eski Mezopotamya toplumunun tamamına yayılmış olduğunu göstermiş olsa da, içeriğinde kaliteli cam oranı yüksek olan ürünlerin daha çok toplumdaki seçkinler tarafından kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Eski Mısır toplumunda ise, cam tam anlamıyla yüksek zümrede bulunan insanların kullandığı bir materyal olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Eski Mezopotamya ve Mısır medeniyetlerinde, önemli bir emtia olarak kabul edilen camın üretimi ihracatı ve ithalatı siyasal otoritenin tekelinde bulunmaktaydılar. Ayrıca çivi yazılı metinlerden öğrenildiği kadarıyla devletlerarası diplomaside gerçekleştirilen hediyeleşmelerde camdan imal edilmiş ürünler önemli bir yer tutmaktaydı. Bu çalışmada çivi yazılı metinler ve arkeolojik bulgulardan hareketle Eski Mezopotamya, Mısır ve Anadolu uygarlıklarında cam varlığına dair tespit ve değerlendirmelerde bulunulacaktır.

Kaynakça

  • Angelini, I., Gratuze, B., and Artioli, G. (2019). “Glass and Other Vitreous Materials Through History”, EMU Notes in Mineralogy, (20/3), 87–150.
  • Atik, Ş. (2004). MÖ. I. Binde Anadolu’da Cam Üretimi ve Tasarımı, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Barag, D., (1962). “Mesopotamian Glass Vessels of the Second Millennıum B.C.: Notes on the Origin of the Core Technique”, Journal of Glass Studies, (4), 9-27.
  • Barag, D., Oren, E. D., and Reade, W. J. (2017). “Glass Vessel sand Beads from the Late Bronze Age Temple at Tel Sera’, Israel”, Journal of GlassStudies, (59), 11-21.
  • Bianchi, R. S. (1983). “Those Ubiquitous Glass Inlays From Pharaonic Egypt: Suggestions About Their Function sand Dates”, Journal of Glass Studies, (25), 29-35.
  • Bower, B. (2005). “Ancient Glassmakers”, Society for Science&the Public, Science News, 167 (25), 388.
  • Brill, R. H. (1963). “Ancient Glass”, Scientific American, 209/5, ss. 120-131.
  • Broschat, K. and Rehren, T. (2020). “A Large Turquoise Glass Writing Palette from Tutankhamen’s Tomb, Journal of Glass Studies, (62), 263-266.
  • Charleston, R. J. (1978). “Glass Furnacess Throuhg the Ages”, Journal of Glass Studies, (20), 9-33.
  • Cooney, J.D. (1960). “Glass Sculpture in Ancient Egypt”, Journal of Glass Studies, (2), 10-43.
  • Coşkun, Y. (1997). “Cam Hamuru, Fayans”, Archivum Anatolicum/Anadolu Arşivleri, 3 (1), 67-73.
  • Çınardalı, N ve Karaaslan, N. (2013). “Arkeolojik ve Filolojik Veriler Işığında MÖ 2. Binde Firit, Fayans ve Cam Malzeme Üzerine Bir Çalışma”, Belleten, 77 (278), 15-72
  • Dardeniz, G. (2019). “MÖ II. Binyıl’da Anadolu ve Doğu Akdeniz’de Cam Algısı, Üretimi ve Ticareti”, Kültürlerin Bağlantısı Başlangıçtan Roma Dönemi Sonuna Kadar Eski Yakın Doğuda Ticaret ve Bölgelerarası İlişliler, Ed, Vasıf Şahoğlu – Müge Şevketoğlu – Yiğit H – Erbil. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü Dergisi, Ankara, 227-241.
  • Duncan Jones, J. (2005). “Glass Vesselsfrom Gordion trade and Influence Along The Royal Road”. Lisa Kealhofer (Ed), The Archaeology of Midas and the Phrygians: Recent Work At Gordion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 101-116.
  • Eker, F. (2017). Kumdan Sızan Kültürler Kahramanmaraş Müzesindeki Cam Kaplar. Kahramanmaraş: Kahramanmaraş Büyükşehir Belediyesi Yayınları.
  • Frankfort, H. (1934). Iraq Excavations of the Oriental Institute 1932/33: Third Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
  • Ertman, E. L. (2013). “A Blue Glass Face Inlay of King Akhenaten”, Journal of Glass Studies, (55), 13-19.
  • Gündüz, A. (2002). Mezopotamya ve Eski Mısır Bilim, Teknoloji, Toplum Yapısı ve Kültür. İstanbul: Büke Yayınları.
  • Harwick, T. (2003). “The Iconography of the Blue Crown in the New Kingdom”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, (89), 117-141.
  • Hasdemir, İ- Kanyak, S. (2010). “Tarihteki İlk Cam Fırınları”, MSGÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (1), 106-121.
  • Johnson, R. W. (1996). “Amenhotep III andAmarna: Some New Considerations”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, (82), 65-82.
  • Karageorghis, V. (1995). “Relations between Cyprus and Egypt Second Intermediate Period and XVIII th Dynasty”, Egypt and the Levant, (5), 73-79.
  • Lilyquist, C. and Brill, R. H. (1995). Studies in Early Egyptian Glass. (Second Printing). New York: Herst Litho Inc.
  • Loeben, C. E., Schlick-Nolte, B., and Werthmann, R. 2011. “Outstanding Glass Statuette Owned by Pharaoh Amenhotep II and Other Early Egyptian Glass Inscribed with Royal Names”, Journal of Glass Studies, (53), 11-44.
  • Luckner, K. T., 1994. “Ancient Glass”, Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, 20 (1), 78-91.
  • Matsumura, K., (2020). “A Glass Production Centre in Central Anatolia? Büklükale in Relation to Alalakh and Mesopotamia”, K.A. Yener and T. Ingman (Eds), Alalakh and its Neighbours. Leuven: Peerters, 103-116.
  • Memiş, E. (2020). Eski Çağda Mezopotamya (5. Baskı). Bursa: Ekin Yayınevi.
  • Moorey, P. R. S., (1982). “The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.”, British InstitutefortheStudy of Iraq, 44 (1), 13-38.
  • Moran, L. W. (1992). Amarna Letters Baltimore ve Londra: The Johns Hopkins University Press,.
  • Nicholson, P. T. (2007). Brilliant Things for AkhenatenTheProduction of Glass, Vitreous Materials and Pottery at Amarna Site O45.1. London: Egypt Exploration Society.
  • Nicholson, P. T. (2012). “Stone... That Flows": Faience and Glass as Man-Made Stones in Egypt”, Journal of Glass Studies, (54), 11-23.
  • Nolte, B. (1971). “An EgyptianGlassVessel in theMetropolitanMuseum of Art”, TheUniversity of Chicago Press on behalf of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (4) 167-171.
  • Oppenheim, A. L. (1973a). “A Note on Research in Mesopotamian Glass”, Corning Museum of Glass, (15), 9-11.
  • Oppenheim, A. L. (1973b). “Towards a History of Glass in the Ancient Near East”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 93 (3), 259-266.
  • Özet, A. (1987). “Ankara Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesindeki Cam Örnekleri ile Antik Çağda Cam Yapımı”, Belleten, 51 (200), 587-610.
  • Pusch, E.B. and Rehren, T. (1997). “New Kingdom Glass-Melting Crucibles from Qantir-Piramesses”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, (83), 127-141.
  • Pusch, E.B. and Rehren, T. (1999). “Glass and Glass Making at Qantir-Piramesses and Beyond”, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, (9), 171-179.
  • Pusch, E.B. and Rehren, T. (2005). “LateBronze Age Glass Production at Qantir-Piramesses, Egypt”, American Association for theAdvancement of Science, 308 (5729), 1756-1758.
  • Rainey, A. F. (2015). The El-Amarna Correspondence: A New Edition of the Cuneiform Letters from the Site of El-Amarna based on Collations of all Extant Tablets. Vol 1. Leiden: Brill.
  • Rehren, T. (2000). “New Aspects Of Ancient Egyptian Glass making”, Journal of GlassStudies, (42), 13-24.
  • SAA 12: Kataja, L. and Whiting R. (1995). Grants, Decrees and Gifts of the Neo-Assyrian Period (State Archives of Assyria XII) Helsinki: Helsinki University Press.
  • SAA 20: Parpola, S. (2017). Assyrian Royal Ritual sand Cultic Texts (State Archives of Assyria XX) Helsinki: Eisenbrauns.
  • Saldern, A. V. (1959). “Glass Finds at Gordion”, Journal of Glass Studies, (1), 22-49.
  • Schlick-Nolte, B., Werthmann, R. and Loeben, C.E. (2011). “An Outstanding Glass Statuette Owned by Pharaoh Amenhotep II and Other Early Egyptian Glass Inscribed with Royal Names”. Journal of Glass Studies, (53), 11-44.
  • Shortland, A. J., Rogers, N., & Eremin, K. (2007). “Trace element discriminants between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Late Bronze Age glasses”, Journal of Archaeological Science, (34), 781–789.
  • Taştemür, E. (2013). MÖ. 7. Yüzyıldan 4. Yüzyıla Cam Kaseler (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Taştemür, E. (2017). “Arkeolojik Veriler Işığında Camın Tarihsel Süreci”, Trakya Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 7 (13), 67-91.
  • Taştemür, E. (2018). “Antik Cam Fırınları ve Anadolu Örnekleri”, Tüba-Ar, (22), 203-229.
  • Tek, A. T. (2005). “Antik Dönemde Anadolu’da Cam Üretimi”. A. Türedi Özen ve B. Karasu ve F. Soykal Alanyalı ve R. Yamaçlı (Ed), III. Uluslararası Katılımlı Seramik Cam, Emaye, Sır ve Boya Semineri Bildiri Kitabı. Eskişehir: Ongar Elektronik Baskı ve Fotokopi Merkezi, 153-168.
  • van der Sleen, W. G. N. (1958). “Ancient Glass Beadswith Special Reference tothe Beads of East and Central Africa and the Indian Ocean” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 88 (2), 203-216.
  • Vanthuyne, B. (2012/2013). “Amarna Factories, work shops, Faience Mould sand Their Produce”, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 22 (23) , 395-429.
  • Woolley, C. L. (1934). Ur Excavations, Vol. 2, The Royal Cemetery: A Report on the Predynastic and Sargonid Graves Excavated between 1926 and 1931. New York: The Carnegie Corporation.
  • Zettler, R. L. (2020). “Woolley’s Excavations at Ur: New Perspectives from Artifact Inventories, Field Records, and Archival Documentation”. Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman (Ed), Ur in the Twenty-First Century CE. University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 7-34.

Glass Production and Use in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Anatolia

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 17, 91 - 108, 31.10.2023
https://doi.org/10.29157/etusbed.1291241

Öz

Ancient societies and states used rare and skilled materials and products, placing them in highly valuable positions. Glass, which is thought to have been first produced in Ancient Mesopotamia, was highly prized and held in important positions in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Anatolia due to its difficulty in production and rarity. In the initial stages, glass emerged in various product models such as glass beads, glass bowls, glass vases, and glass bottles. Although studies have shown that the use of glass was widespread throughout Ancient Mesopotamian society, it was understood that the products with high glass content were mainly used by the high-class people. In Ancient Egyptian society, glass was considered a product for people of high class. In the civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the state monopolized the production activities, export and import of glass by the dynasty. Glass was also exchanged as gifts between states. When we look at the ancient Anatolian geography, it is understood that glass production started in a later period compared to Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, and its role in society is not fully known.

Kaynakça

  • Angelini, I., Gratuze, B., and Artioli, G. (2019). “Glass and Other Vitreous Materials Through History”, EMU Notes in Mineralogy, (20/3), 87–150.
  • Atik, Ş. (2004). MÖ. I. Binde Anadolu’da Cam Üretimi ve Tasarımı, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Barag, D., (1962). “Mesopotamian Glass Vessels of the Second Millennıum B.C.: Notes on the Origin of the Core Technique”, Journal of Glass Studies, (4), 9-27.
  • Barag, D., Oren, E. D., and Reade, W. J. (2017). “Glass Vessel sand Beads from the Late Bronze Age Temple at Tel Sera’, Israel”, Journal of GlassStudies, (59), 11-21.
  • Bianchi, R. S. (1983). “Those Ubiquitous Glass Inlays From Pharaonic Egypt: Suggestions About Their Function sand Dates”, Journal of Glass Studies, (25), 29-35.
  • Bower, B. (2005). “Ancient Glassmakers”, Society for Science&the Public, Science News, 167 (25), 388.
  • Brill, R. H. (1963). “Ancient Glass”, Scientific American, 209/5, ss. 120-131.
  • Broschat, K. and Rehren, T. (2020). “A Large Turquoise Glass Writing Palette from Tutankhamen’s Tomb, Journal of Glass Studies, (62), 263-266.
  • Charleston, R. J. (1978). “Glass Furnacess Throuhg the Ages”, Journal of Glass Studies, (20), 9-33.
  • Cooney, J.D. (1960). “Glass Sculpture in Ancient Egypt”, Journal of Glass Studies, (2), 10-43.
  • Coşkun, Y. (1997). “Cam Hamuru, Fayans”, Archivum Anatolicum/Anadolu Arşivleri, 3 (1), 67-73.
  • Çınardalı, N ve Karaaslan, N. (2013). “Arkeolojik ve Filolojik Veriler Işığında MÖ 2. Binde Firit, Fayans ve Cam Malzeme Üzerine Bir Çalışma”, Belleten, 77 (278), 15-72
  • Dardeniz, G. (2019). “MÖ II. Binyıl’da Anadolu ve Doğu Akdeniz’de Cam Algısı, Üretimi ve Ticareti”, Kültürlerin Bağlantısı Başlangıçtan Roma Dönemi Sonuna Kadar Eski Yakın Doğuda Ticaret ve Bölgelerarası İlişliler, Ed, Vasıf Şahoğlu – Müge Şevketoğlu – Yiğit H – Erbil. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Arkeoloji Bölümü Dergisi, Ankara, 227-241.
  • Duncan Jones, J. (2005). “Glass Vesselsfrom Gordion trade and Influence Along The Royal Road”. Lisa Kealhofer (Ed), The Archaeology of Midas and the Phrygians: Recent Work At Gordion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 101-116.
  • Eker, F. (2017). Kumdan Sızan Kültürler Kahramanmaraş Müzesindeki Cam Kaplar. Kahramanmaraş: Kahramanmaraş Büyükşehir Belediyesi Yayınları.
  • Frankfort, H. (1934). Iraq Excavations of the Oriental Institute 1932/33: Third Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
  • Ertman, E. L. (2013). “A Blue Glass Face Inlay of King Akhenaten”, Journal of Glass Studies, (55), 13-19.
  • Gündüz, A. (2002). Mezopotamya ve Eski Mısır Bilim, Teknoloji, Toplum Yapısı ve Kültür. İstanbul: Büke Yayınları.
  • Harwick, T. (2003). “The Iconography of the Blue Crown in the New Kingdom”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, (89), 117-141.
  • Hasdemir, İ- Kanyak, S. (2010). “Tarihteki İlk Cam Fırınları”, MSGÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (1), 106-121.
  • Johnson, R. W. (1996). “Amenhotep III andAmarna: Some New Considerations”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, (82), 65-82.
  • Karageorghis, V. (1995). “Relations between Cyprus and Egypt Second Intermediate Period and XVIII th Dynasty”, Egypt and the Levant, (5), 73-79.
  • Lilyquist, C. and Brill, R. H. (1995). Studies in Early Egyptian Glass. (Second Printing). New York: Herst Litho Inc.
  • Loeben, C. E., Schlick-Nolte, B., and Werthmann, R. 2011. “Outstanding Glass Statuette Owned by Pharaoh Amenhotep II and Other Early Egyptian Glass Inscribed with Royal Names”, Journal of Glass Studies, (53), 11-44.
  • Luckner, K. T., 1994. “Ancient Glass”, Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, 20 (1), 78-91.
  • Matsumura, K., (2020). “A Glass Production Centre in Central Anatolia? Büklükale in Relation to Alalakh and Mesopotamia”, K.A. Yener and T. Ingman (Eds), Alalakh and its Neighbours. Leuven: Peerters, 103-116.
  • Memiş, E. (2020). Eski Çağda Mezopotamya (5. Baskı). Bursa: Ekin Yayınevi.
  • Moorey, P. R. S., (1982). “The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.”, British InstitutefortheStudy of Iraq, 44 (1), 13-38.
  • Moran, L. W. (1992). Amarna Letters Baltimore ve Londra: The Johns Hopkins University Press,.
  • Nicholson, P. T. (2007). Brilliant Things for AkhenatenTheProduction of Glass, Vitreous Materials and Pottery at Amarna Site O45.1. London: Egypt Exploration Society.
  • Nicholson, P. T. (2012). “Stone... That Flows": Faience and Glass as Man-Made Stones in Egypt”, Journal of Glass Studies, (54), 11-23.
  • Nolte, B. (1971). “An EgyptianGlassVessel in theMetropolitanMuseum of Art”, TheUniversity of Chicago Press on behalf of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (4) 167-171.
  • Oppenheim, A. L. (1973a). “A Note on Research in Mesopotamian Glass”, Corning Museum of Glass, (15), 9-11.
  • Oppenheim, A. L. (1973b). “Towards a History of Glass in the Ancient Near East”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 93 (3), 259-266.
  • Özet, A. (1987). “Ankara Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesindeki Cam Örnekleri ile Antik Çağda Cam Yapımı”, Belleten, 51 (200), 587-610.
  • Pusch, E.B. and Rehren, T. (1997). “New Kingdom Glass-Melting Crucibles from Qantir-Piramesses”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, (83), 127-141.
  • Pusch, E.B. and Rehren, T. (1999). “Glass and Glass Making at Qantir-Piramesses and Beyond”, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, (9), 171-179.
  • Pusch, E.B. and Rehren, T. (2005). “LateBronze Age Glass Production at Qantir-Piramesses, Egypt”, American Association for theAdvancement of Science, 308 (5729), 1756-1758.
  • Rainey, A. F. (2015). The El-Amarna Correspondence: A New Edition of the Cuneiform Letters from the Site of El-Amarna based on Collations of all Extant Tablets. Vol 1. Leiden: Brill.
  • Rehren, T. (2000). “New Aspects Of Ancient Egyptian Glass making”, Journal of GlassStudies, (42), 13-24.
  • SAA 12: Kataja, L. and Whiting R. (1995). Grants, Decrees and Gifts of the Neo-Assyrian Period (State Archives of Assyria XII) Helsinki: Helsinki University Press.
  • SAA 20: Parpola, S. (2017). Assyrian Royal Ritual sand Cultic Texts (State Archives of Assyria XX) Helsinki: Eisenbrauns.
  • Saldern, A. V. (1959). “Glass Finds at Gordion”, Journal of Glass Studies, (1), 22-49.
  • Schlick-Nolte, B., Werthmann, R. and Loeben, C.E. (2011). “An Outstanding Glass Statuette Owned by Pharaoh Amenhotep II and Other Early Egyptian Glass Inscribed with Royal Names”. Journal of Glass Studies, (53), 11-44.
  • Shortland, A. J., Rogers, N., & Eremin, K. (2007). “Trace element discriminants between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Late Bronze Age glasses”, Journal of Archaeological Science, (34), 781–789.
  • Taştemür, E. (2013). MÖ. 7. Yüzyıldan 4. Yüzyıla Cam Kaseler (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
  • Taştemür, E. (2017). “Arkeolojik Veriler Işığında Camın Tarihsel Süreci”, Trakya Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 7 (13), 67-91.
  • Taştemür, E. (2018). “Antik Cam Fırınları ve Anadolu Örnekleri”, Tüba-Ar, (22), 203-229.
  • Tek, A. T. (2005). “Antik Dönemde Anadolu’da Cam Üretimi”. A. Türedi Özen ve B. Karasu ve F. Soykal Alanyalı ve R. Yamaçlı (Ed), III. Uluslararası Katılımlı Seramik Cam, Emaye, Sır ve Boya Semineri Bildiri Kitabı. Eskişehir: Ongar Elektronik Baskı ve Fotokopi Merkezi, 153-168.
  • van der Sleen, W. G. N. (1958). “Ancient Glass Beadswith Special Reference tothe Beads of East and Central Africa and the Indian Ocean” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 88 (2), 203-216.
  • Vanthuyne, B. (2012/2013). “Amarna Factories, work shops, Faience Mould sand Their Produce”, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 22 (23) , 395-429.
  • Woolley, C. L. (1934). Ur Excavations, Vol. 2, The Royal Cemetery: A Report on the Predynastic and Sargonid Graves Excavated between 1926 and 1931. New York: The Carnegie Corporation.
  • Zettler, R. L. (2020). “Woolley’s Excavations at Ur: New Perspectives from Artifact Inventories, Field Records, and Archival Documentation”. Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman (Ed), Ur in the Twenty-First Century CE. University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 7-34.
Toplam 53 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Eski Önasya Tarihi
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Gürkan Kahveci 0000-0002-5238-4830

Okay Pekşen 0000-0003-4841-5427

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 30 Ekim 2023
Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Ekim 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Sayı: 17

Kaynak Göster

APA Kahveci, G., & Pekşen, O. (2023). Glass Production and Use in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Anatolia. Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi(17), 91-108. https://doi.org/10.29157/etusbed.1291241

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